halobacterium/lives in high salinity
red pigments
photosynthesizes
K+ pump to compensate for water loss;
deinococcus radiolarians/can survive radiation;
picrophilus oshimae/can survive at a pH of .03;
diameter of most prokaryotes/0.5 - 5 um
vs 10 -100 um of eukaryotes;
cocci/spherical prokaryotes;
three forms of cocci/ diplococci-pairs of cocci;
streptococco-chains of cocci;
staphylococci-bunch of grapes formation of cocci;
bacilli/ rod shaped prokaryotes
usually solitary
but sometimes in chains (streptobacilli);
spiral prokaryotes/include spirilla and spirochetes
corkscrew shaped;
cell wall of gram positive bacteria/thick but simple
made of peptidoglycan which traps crystal violet, masking the safranin;
wall of gram negative bacteria/more complex wall
thinner peptidoglycan located between plasma membrane and an outer membrane
doesn’t hold crystal violet, but holds safranin
more likely to be antibiotic resistant;
the cell wall prevents/bursting in hypotonic environments;
salt preserves food because it causes/ plasmolysis in bacteria
(shrinking of the plasma membrane from cell wall);
peptidoglycan/polymer composed of modified sugars cross linked by short polypeptides
not found in archaea;
process of gram stain/crystal violet
iodine
alcohol
safranin;
gram staining uses/quickly narrow down the type of bacterial infection in a person;
effectiveness of penicillin derives from / inhibition of peptidoglycan cross linking;
capsule/dense, well defined sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein surrounding prokaryotic cell wall
protect against dehydration, or attack by immune system;
slime layer/less well organized capsule;
fimbria/hairlike appendages by which some prokaryotes stick to substrate or one another
eg. neisseria gonorrhoea
shorter and more numerous than pili;
pili/appendages that pull two cells together for DNA transfer from one cell to another
also “sex pili”;
taxis/directed movement toward or away from stimulus
half of all prokaryotes capable of taxis
up to 50 x body length per sec;
positive chemotaxis/toward chemical stimulus;
negative chemotaxis/movement away from dangerous stimulus;
flagella/most common method of movement of prokaryotes
differ from eukaryotic flagella
1/10 width, not covered by plasma membrane;
three parts of bacterial flagellum/motor
hook
filament
up to 42 proteins, not all essential;
nucleoid/area where chromosomes are located in prokaryote;
plasmids/smaller rings of independently replicating DNA;
prokaryotic ribosomes vs eukaryotic/fundamentally similar
slightly smaller
different proteins, which allows some antibiotics to kill them;
rate of division of prokaryotes/every 1 - 3 hours,
some as fast as 20 min;
three key features of prokaryotic biology/small
reproduce by binary fission
have short generation times;
endospores/cell produces copy of its chromosome and surrounds it with tough, multilayered structure
water is removed
most can survive boiling water
can be viable for centuries
eg bacillus anthracis;
genetic variation in prokaryotes comes from /rapid reproduction, mutation, and genetic recombination;
horizontal gene transfer/movement of genetic material between organisms of different species;
three methods of gene recombination in prokaryotes/transformation
transduction
conjugation;
transformation/genotype, possibly phenotype of prokaryote altered by uptake of foreign DNA from surroundings
eg. from pathogenic strains of bacteria;
recombinant cell/one that has picked up new DNA from environment and incorporated it;
transduction/phages carry prokaryotic genes from one host cell to another;
conjugation/DNA transferred between two prokaryotic cells
always one-way in bacteria
with sex pilus
temporary mating bridge
eg. e. coli;
F factor/particular piece of DNA that allows the formation of pili and donation of DNA during conjugation of bacteria
plasmid or within bacterial chromosome;
F plasmid/ F factor in plasmid form
F+ cells contain one
F- cells do not;
Cells with F plasmid function as /DNA donors during conjugation;
cells without F plasmid function as/ DNA receivers during conjugation;
F+ condition is transferable if/the F plasmid is transferred during conjugation;
Hfr cell/cell with F factor built into its chromosome
=high frequency of recombination
function as DNA donors;
conjugation of F- cell with Hfr cell results in /the production of a recombinant bacterium with genes derived from two cells;
rolling circle replication/DNA replication that accompanies transfer of an F plasmid or part of an Hfr bacterial chromosome
parental DNA strand rolls and other strand peels off to enter F- cell;
R plasmid/resistance genes
genes that code for enzymes that specifically destroy or hinder the effects of an antibiotic
eg. tetracycline or ampicillin;
metabolic range in prokaryotes compared to eukaryotes/broader in prokaryotes than in eukaryotes;
chemotrophic/organisms that obtain energy from chemicals
unique to prokaryotes;
autotrophs/organisms that need only CO2 in some form as a carbon source;
heterotrophs/require at least one organic nutrient;
example of photoautotrophic bacteria/cyanobacteria;
example of chemoautotrophic bacteria/sulfolobus;
example of photoheterotrophic bacteria/rhodobacter, chloroflexus;
example of chemoheterotrophic bacteria/ clostridium;
two forms of nutrition unique to prokaryotes/photoheterotrophy
chemoautotrophy;
obligate aerobes/cannot live without O2;
obligate anaerobes/are poisoned by O2;
anaerobic respiration uses / substances other than O2 as electron acceptors
eg. nitrate or sulfate ions;
facultative anaerobes/use O2 if it is available, but can also carry out fermentation or anaerobic respiration;
Nitrogen is essential for/production of amino acids and nucleic acids in all organisms;
nitrogen fixation/ conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia
has a large impact on other organisms that need nitrogen
some cyanobacteria and methanogens
some of the most self-sufficient bacteria;
metabolic cooperation/different bacterial cells working in combination to produce things the other cell needs;
example of metabolic cooperation/anabaena bacteria that form filamentous chains
some fix nitrogen, others photosynthesize because both can’t be done at once by the same cell;
heterocysts/the few specialized cells in a filament of anabaena that carry out only nitrogen fixation;
metabolic cooperation between different prokaryotic species result in /biofilms;
biofilms/surface coating colonies
metabolic cooperation between different species
cells secret signalling molecules to stimulate
secrete polysaccharides, proteins;
sulfate consuming bacteria coexist with /methane consuming archaea in ball shaped aggregates on the ocean floor;
gram negative bacteria structure outer to inner/ polysaccharide capsule
cell wall (2 Parts) - lipopolysaccharide membrane, peptidoglycan layer
plasma membrane;
archaea have their own domain because/they share traits with both bacteria and eukaryotes;
halophiles def and example/live in extremely saline environments
eg. halobacterium;
example of thermophile/sulfolobus live in sulfur rich volcanic hot springs up to 90 C
DNA has adaptation to be stable at high temps;
pyrococcus furiosus/thermophilic archaea that lives near hydrothermal vents;
methanogenic/archaea that release methane as a byproduct of metabolism
produce marsh gas
live under ice
guts of cattle
decomposers in sewage treatment;
Euryarchaeota/greek - broad
clade of archaea inhabiting a broad range of habitats;
the majority of prokaryotes are/bacteria;
proteobacteria/clade of gram negative bacteria containing five subgroups;
five subgroups of proteobacteria/alpha
beta
gamma
delta
epsilon;
alphaproteobacteria/many closely associated with eukaryotic hosts
eg rhizobium species fix N2 with roots of legumes;
beta proteobacteria/eg. nitrosomonas
oxidize ammonium cation;
gammaproteobacteria/sulfur bacteria: thiomargarita namibiensis
some pathogens: eg legionella, salmonella, vibrio cholerae, escherichia coli;
subgroup for legionella, salmonella, vibrio cholerae, escherichia coli/gamma proteobacteria;
delta proteobacteria/includes slime secreting myxobacteria
bdellovibrio drill into prey with digestive enzymes and spinning at 100 times/sec;
epsilon proteobacteria/most pathogenic
campylobacter causes blood poisoning
helicobacter pylori;
chlamydias/parasitic subgroup of bacteria
gram negative
chlamydia trachomatis =most common cause of blindness and causes nongonococcal urethritis;
spirochetes/helical heterotrophs
spirals that move by rotating
some pathogens: treponema pallidum causes syphilis
borrelia burgdorferi causes lyme disease;
cyanobacteria/photoautotrophs
only prokaryotes with plant like photosynthesis
abundant in phytoplankton
some cells specialized for nitrogen fixation;
gram positive bacteria/very divers group
eg. actinomycetes from fungus like colonies
cause tuberculosis and leprosy;
streptomyces/gram positive bacteria cultured to make antibiotic streptomycin;
bacillus anthracis/gram positive bacteria causes anthrax;
clostridium botulinum/gram positive bacteria causes botulism, botox;
group containing staphylococcus and streptococcus /gram positive bacteria;
mycoplasmas/tiniest known cells
gram positive bacteria
lack cell walls;
decomposers/eg. chemoheterotrophs
life would cease without them;
host/larger organism in symbiotic relationship;
symbiont/smaller organism in symbiotic relationship;
mutualism/kind of symbiosis
an ecological interaction between two species in which both benefit;
commensalism/relationship in which one species benefits and the other is unharmed;
parasitic/organism that eats the cell contents, tissues, body fluids of host
usually harm but don’t always kill host;
pathogens/parasites that cause disease
many are prokaryotic;
number of bacterial species in human intestines/500 - 1000;
bacterial cells outnumber human in human body by/a factor of ten;
bacteroides thetaiotaomicron/mutualistic human gut bacteria;
% of human disease caused by bacteria/ about 50%;
bacterial tuberculosis and diarrheal diseases kill / 2 million people each annually;
two types of toxins produced by bacteria/ endotoxins and exotoxins;
exotoxins/toxic proteins secreted by bacteria
eg. cholera, vibrio cholerae causes release of chloride ions, which pull water into gut;
endotoxins/toxic lipopolysaccharide components of the outer membrane of gram negative bacteria
eg. salmonella, s.typhi;
effect of horizontal gene transfer on pathogenicity/can cause non pathogenic bacteria to become pathogenic;
eg of virulent horizontal gene transfer/e. coli
many genes transferred via phage (transduction);
PHA/polyhydroxyalkanoate
substance secreted by some bacteria that can be used to make biodegradable plastic;
bioremediation/use of organisms to remove pollutants from soil, air, or water
eg sewage treatment with bacteria and archaea;
abundant internal membranes found in / photosythetic bacteria;
Transduction can be facilitated by/ cell surface proteins that recognize compatible DNA
===================================================
Plant diversity 2
seed / sporophyte embryo and nutrients surrounded by a protective coat
develops from whole ovule
changed course of plant evolution
seed plants dominate plant landscape;
common traits of all seed plants/ reduced gametophytes
heterospory
ovules
pollen;
gametophytes of seed plants / develop within the walls of the spores
retained within tissues of the parent sporophyte;
dominant generations for gymnosperms, etc…
heterospory / two types of sporangia, male/female
normal for seed plants
ancestors were probably homosporous;
megasporangia / produce megaspores , female gametophytes;
microsporangia / produce microspores, male gametophytes;
ovule / a megasporangium, megaspore, and one or more protective integuments;
gymnosperm megaspores / one integument;
angiosperm megaspores / two integuments;
microspores / pollen grains
contain male gametophytes;
pollination / transfer of pollen to the part of a seed plant containing the ovules;
pollen grain/ male gametophyte
germinates and gives rise to pollen tube that discharges two sperm into female gametophyte in ovule;
manners of pollination / insects, wind, water, animals
forms similar to seed dispersal;
micropyle / pore at the apex of the integuments where pollen enters;
seed advantages over spores / may remain dormant for days to years
may be transported long distances by wind or animals;
four phyla of gymnosperms CCGG/ coniferophyta
cycadophyta
ginkgophyta
gnetophyta;
Coniferophyta / phyla of gymnosperm
eg. pine, fir, redwood;
two clades of seed plants / angiosperms and gymnosperms;
phylum cycadophyta / gymnosperm
large cones and palm like leaves
few species exist today
thrived during the mesozoic period;
Phylum ginkgophyta / single living species ginkgo biloba
high tolerance to air pollution popular ornamental tree;
phylum gnetophyta/ gymnosperm
contains three genera
some tropical, some desert;
three genera of gnetophyta/welwitschia
ephedra
gentum - tropical trees, shrubs, vines;
phylum coniferophyta / largest phyla of gymnosperms
most are evergreens photosynthesize year round;
three features of gymnosperm life cycle / dominance of sporophyte generation
seeds develop from fertilized ovules
transfer of sperm to ovules by pollen;
pine sporophyte produces / sporangia in male and female cones;
small pine cones produce / microspores and pollen grains with male gametophyte;
larger pine cones contain / ovules produce megaspores that develop into female gametophytes ;
time from cone production to mature seed / three years;
pine life cycle / tree is mature sporophyte
cones are pollen cone and ovulate cone
pollen and ovule haploid
megaspore ;
difference between gymnosperm and bryophyte life cycles / antagonism and archegonium in bryophytes corresponds to megasporangium and microsporangium in gymnosperm;
Angiosperms / seed plants with reproductive structures called flowers and fruits
most widespread and divers o f all plants
one single phylum, Anthophyta
from the Greek anthos, flower
pollen (sperm) found within the flower;
flower/ angiosperm structure specialized for sexual reproduction;
pollination of angiosperms / many animal or insect
some wind;
parts of flower / sepals - enclose flower
petals - brightly colored, attractive
stamen - produce pollen on terminal anthers
carpels - produce ovules;
carpal parts / stigma- top
style - stem like part
ovary - contains ovules;
stamen / male part of flower;
fruit / mature ovary of plant, can include other flower parts
protect seed and aid in dispersal
can be fleshy or dry;
seed / ovule from ovary;
angiosperm life cycle / flower has both male and female structures
male gametophyte in pollen
female gametophyte, or embryo sac, in ovary at base of stigma;
cross pollination / most flowers have mechanisms to ensure this between different plants ;
cotyledons / two seed leaves that are part of embryo, along with root;
parts of embryo / cotyledon and root;
double fertilization/ one fertilization
event produces a zygote and the other produces a
triploid cell
unique to angiosperms;
most food from plants comes from/ angiosperms;
80% of from from 6 crops of angiosperms/wheat
rice
maize
potatoes
cassava
sweet potatoes;
secondary compounds from seed plants used in /medicine;
artificial selection’/breeding
most modern crops formed through this;
4 traits common to seed plants in addition to seeds/heterospory
ovules
pollen
reduced gametophytes;
gametophyte trend/ mosses and nonvascular plants - dominant
ferns and vascular seedless plants - free living but reduced
seed plants - reduced further, dependent on sporophyte;
the megasporangium of seed plants is always retained within/the parent sporophyte;
protective seed coat derived from the / integuments;
advantages of seeds over spores/spores single cells vs multicellular seeds
spores have shorter lifetime
spores have no supply of stored food;
sporophylls/modified leaves that hold spores
eg. cones;
progymnosperms/transitional species of seedless vascular plants;
two cells of male gametophyte of angiosperms (pollen grain)/generative cell that divides
tube cell produces pollen tube;
embryo sac/female gametophyte of angiosperm
contained in the ovule;
Two main groups of angiosperms/monocots
dicots;
Dicots now divided into three groups/eudicots
basal angiosperms
magnoliids;
monocot leaf veins are/ parallel;
monocot flower petals are / usually multiples of three;
monocot pollen has / one opening;
monocot root system /fibrous, no tap;
dicot leaf veins are /branched, netlike;
dicot petals found in /multiples of four or five;
dicot pollen has/ three openings;
dicot root system /taproot;
dicot vascular tissue/ arranged in a ring;
monocot vascular tissue/ scattered ;
examples of monocots/ orchids, palms, grain crops;
examples of dicots/ roses, peas, sunflowers, maples;
=====================================
FUNGI
fungi are essential to the ecosystem as/decomposers
recycle vital nutrients;
fungi mode of nutrition/heterotrophs
absorb nutrients from outside their body;
fungi use these to break down complex molecules/enzymes;
versatility of their ___ contribute to fungi success/enzymes;
three lifestyles of fungi/decomposers
parasites
mutualists;
lichen/example of mutualism between fungi and other organisms
between photosynthetic symbiont held in fungal hyphae (host);
fungal component of lichen/usually ascomycetes;
symbiont of lichen/algae or cyanobacteria
fungi body structures/usually multicellular filaments
can be single cell
some species grow as both;
example of single celled fungi / yeasts ;
morphology of multicellular fungi/enhance ability to absorb nutrients;
mycelia/networks of branched hyphae adapted for absorption;
chitin/composes cell walls of most fungi;
hyphae/filaments of fungi;
septa/divide cells of some fungi
with pores allowing cell to cells movement of organelles;
coenocytic fungi/lack septa;
organelles move from cell to cell in fungi via/pores in the septa;
septa not found in / coenocytic fungi;
haustoria/specialized hyphae in some fungi that allow them to penetrate the tissues of their hosts;
some unique fungi penetrate their hosts via/haustoria, which are specialized hyphae;
mycorrhizae/mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plant roots;
two types of mycorrhizae/ectomycorrhizal
arbuscular mycorrhizal;
ectomycorrhizal fungi/form sheaths of hyphae over a root can also grow into extracellular spaces of root cortex;
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi/fungi that extend hyphae through the cell walls of root cells and into tubes formed by invagination of the root cell membrane;
fungi propagation/produce vast numbers of spores;
spore production can be from different/ life cycles;
two forms of reproduction of fungi/sexual and asexual;
both sexual and asezual reproduction of fungi produce/spores;
plasmogamy/union of two parent mycelia
fusion of cytoplasm during sexual reproduction
of haploid cells;
karyogamy/fusion of nuclei in sexual reproduction
forms diploid zygote;
germination/formation of mycelium from spores;
heterokaryotic state of reproduction/between plasmogamy and karyogamy
haploid nuclei from parents coexist in the mycelium;
spores haploid or diploid/haploid;
fungal nuclei normally/haploid;
dikaryotic fungus/mycelium in which haploid nuclei pair off two to a cell
happens sometimes;
diploid phase in fungus/short lived
quickly undergoes meiosis and produces spores;
time that passes before karyogamy/hours, days, or centuries;
molds/informal name for fungi that produce haploid spores by mitosis and form visible mycelia
eg. bread molds;
fungal infections usually found in/lungs or skin;
yeasts/fungi htat reproduce asaexually, inhabit moist environments;
yeast reproduction/reproduce asexually by budding - a simple division;
bud cells/cells of yeast that pinch off from parent cells;
deuteromycetes/”imperfect fungi”
traditional name for molds and yeasts with no known sexual stage;
opisthokonta/clade of fungi, animals, and their protistan relatives;
clade containing fungi/opisthokonts;
chytrids/ type of fungi
1,000 species ;
zygomycetes/ type of fungi
1,000 species;
glomeromycetes/type of fungi
160 species;
ascomycetes/group of fungi containing
65,000 species;
five major groups of fungi/ascomycetes
glomeromycetes
zygomycetes
chytrids
basidiomycetes;
basidiomycetes/major group of fungi containing 30,000 species;
largest major group of fungi/ascomycetes;
chytrids/freshwater and terrestrial habitats
decomposers, parasites, or mutualists
unique in having flagellated zoospores;
zoospores/flagellated spores unique to chytrids;
zygomycetes/great diversity of life histories
fast growing molds, parasites, commensal symbionts
named for zygosporangia - sexually produced spores
resistant to freezing and drying and unfavorable conditions;
zygosporangia/sexually produced spores of zygomycetes;
glomeromycetes/(phylum glomeromycota)
once considered zygomycetes but now separate clade
form arbuscular mycorrhizae;
ascomycetes general description/(phylum ascomycota)
live in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial
defined by sexual production of spores in saclike asci
fruiting bodies called ascocarps
commonly called sac fungi
vary in size from yeasts to elaborate cups and morels;
ascocarps/fruiting bodies of ascomycetes;
sac fungi/common name for ascomycetes;
asci/saclike structures of ascomycetes containing spores;
morels/example of ascomycetes;
ascomycetes/plant pathogens, decomposers, symbions
reproduce asexually by huge numbers of asexual spores called conidia;
conidia/spores of ascomycetes
formed at tips of specialized hyphae called conidiophores, not in sporangia;
neurospora/ascomycetes
model organism with well studied genome;
conidiophores/specialized structures on hyphae tips of ascomycetes that asexually produce huge numbers of spores;
ascomycetes can reproduce/sexually-ascocarps
asexually - conidiophores;
basidiomycetes/(phylum basidiomycota)
mushrooms, puffballs, shelf fungi
are mutualists and plant parasites d
defined by clublike structure basidium - transient diploid stage in life cycle
also club fungi;
basidium/clublike structure
transient diploid stage of basidiomycetes life cycle;
club fungi/another name for basidiomycetes;
dictyophora/maiden veil fungus
odor like rotting meat;
life cycle of basidiomycetes/long lived dikaryotic mycelium
reproduce sexually with environmental stimuli in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps
basidia in basidiocarps are sources of basidiospores;
basidiocarps/fruiting bodies of basidiomycetes
for sexual reproduction;
about 30% fungal species are/parasites or pathogens
usually on plants;
mycosis/general term for a fungal infection;
animals more or less susceptible to fungal infection/much less;
examples of fungi in plants/corn smuts
tar spots on leaves
ergot of rye;
practical uses of fungi/making cheeses, beverages, bread
antibiotics - ascomycetes penicillium
biotech research - eg. insulin like growth factor from saccharomyces cerevisiae;
penicillium/ascomycetes used to produce penicillin;
penicillin inhibits/gram positive bacteria;
Zygote/formed by fusion of nuclei in dikaryotic fungi;
arbuscules/tiny tips of glomeromycota hyphae that penetrate plant roots
defining feature of glomeromycetes;
endosperm/result of double fertilization
one sperm nucleus plus two nuclei of female gametophyte
nourishes the zygote;
===========================
Protists
Dinoflagellates/ diverse
aquatic mixotrophs and heterotrophs
component of phytoplankton
spin as they move due to their two flagella
cause red tide due to neurotoxin;
apicomplexans/ animal parasites
cause serious human disease
have nonphotosynthetic plastids apicoplast
sexual and asexual life stages
apex has complex organelle for penetrating the host;
apicoplast/nonphotosynthetic plastid found in apicomplexans;
plasmodium/apicomplexan that causes malaria
approx 2 million deaths per year
malarie – most common
falciparum – most dangerous, brain ;
life cycle of plasmodium/ mosquito – sexual fertilization, meiosis, prod sporozoites (stored in salivary gland)
human – in liver: form merozoites (asexual phase)
human – in RBCs: form gametocytes ;
cause of death from malaria/kidney (and other organ) failure from parasite overload;
ciliates/large varied group
use cilia to move and feed
two nuclei: macro and micro;
micronuclei of ciliates/function during sexual conjugation (not reproduction);
ciliate reproduction occurs by/binary fission;
cysts of giardia resemble/endospores of bacteria
Protists/Informal name for Kingdom of mostly unicellular eukaryotes
Some colonial and multicellular
More structural and functional diversity than any other group of eukaryotes
Most nutritionally diverse
polyphyletic;
Majority of known human parasite are/Protists;
Protists can be complex because/All biological functions are carried out by a single cell;
Mixotrophs/Combine photosynthesis with heterotrophic nutrition;
3 forms of Protists nutrition/Photoautotrophs
Heterotrophy
Mixotrophy;
Two type of sexual reproduction in Protists/Meiosis
Syngamy;
Endosymbiosis/One organism living inside another
Mutually beneficial
Probably led to development of mitochondria and chloroplasts;
Development of mitochondrial/Endosymbiosis with an anaerobic prokaryote;
Endosymbiotic development of photoautotrophs/Endosymbiosis with a cyanobacteria that later evolved into plastids;
Secondary endosymbiosis/Red or green algae ingested by a heterotrophic eukaryote and became endosymbiont;
Plastid bearing Protists evolved into/Red and green algae;
primary production/amount of energy stored by autotrophs;
plankton/community of organisms floating in the ocean or bodies of fresh water
contains a great variety of protists;
parts of paramecium caudatum/oral groove
food vacuole
macronucleus
micronucleus
contractile vacuole;
axopodia/threadlike pseudopodia of radiolarians;
carrageenan/thickener extracted from red algae;
agar/polysaccharide extracted from the cell wall of red algae;
3 in class excavata/Diplomonads
Parabasalids
Euglenozoans;
2 chromalveolata/Alveolates
Stramenopiles;
Alveolates /member of chromalveolates
important photosynthetic organisms, brown algae, pathogens
have membrane bound sacs (alveoli) under the plasma membrane;
3 in class rhizaria/Forams
Radiolarians
Chlorarachniophytes;
4 in class archaeplastida/Red algae
Chlorophytes
Charophyceans
Land plants;
7 in Class unikonta/Some molds
Gymnamoebas
Entamoebas
Nucleariids
Fungi
Choanoflagellates
Animals;
Clade excavata/Protists with modified mitochondria and /or unique flagella
Characterized by cytoskeleton
Some have and "excavated" feeding groove
Includes diplomonads, Parabasalids, euglenozoans;
Diplomonads and Parabasalids/Anaerobic groups
Lack plastids
Have modified mitochondria;
Diplomonads/Have mitosomes
Anaerobic
2 = sized nuclei and multiple flagella
Often parasitic
Eg. Giardia;
Mitosomes/Modified mitochondria
lack electron chains and cannot use O2 to extract E from carbs;
Parabasalids/Have reduced mitochondria called hydrogenosomes generate energy anaerobically
Eg. Trichomonas vaginalis which causes yeast infections;
Trichomonas vaginalis/Sexually transmitted disease causes yeast infections
Transmitted by male;
Euglenozoans/Diverse Clade includes predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs, pathogenic parasites
grouped by structure of their flagella
spiral out crystalline rod inside flagella - unknown function
Includes kinetoplastids and euglenids;
endosymbiosis/unicellular organism engulfs another cell
they become endosymbionts
then organelles;
chlorarachniophytes/protists that likely evolved from endosymbiosis between heterotrophic eukaryote and a green alga
plastids surrounded by four membranes
contain nucleomorph;
amitochondriate protists/group lacking traditional mitochondria
once thought to be oldest line of protest, but that is not true;
nucleomorph/vestigial nucleus found in plastids of chlorarachniophytes, which shows that the secondary endosymbiosis occurred relatively recently;
five supergroups of eukaryotes ACURE/archaeplastida
chromalveolata
excavata
unikonta
rhizaria;
current phylogenetic hypotheses/the five supergroups of eukaryotes evolved at a similar time from one common ancestor
known not to be true, but is the best explanation;
clade rhizaria/amoebas with threadlike pseudopodia used for movement and capture of prey;
clade archaeplastida/red and green algae and algae
key photosynthetic organisms that form the base of the food web in some aquatic communities
monophyletic group descended from protists that engulfed a cyanobacterium;
clade unikonta/amoebas that have lobe or tube shaped pseudopodia
animals, fungi
possible first group to diverge from other eukaryotes;
kinetoplastids/contain single large mitochondria with DNA called kinetoplast
feed on prokaryotes in water and moist earth
also parasites
eg. trypanosoma causes sleeping sickness, and chagas’ disease;
vector organism/organism that carries a disease
eg, mosquitoes, tsetse fly;
euglenids/have pocket at one end with one or two flagella
many are mixotrophs
others are phagocytic predators;
supergroup chromalveolata/large diverse clade
possibly evolved through secondary endosymbiosis of red algae;
3 subgroups of alveolates/dinoflagellates
apicomplexans (parasites)
ciliates - move using cilia;
dinoflagellates/cells reinforced with cellulose plates
two flagella in perpendicular grooves in their armor
“dinos” greek, whirling - spin due to two flagella
important photosynthesis
many mixotrophic or heterotrophic
blooms result in red tide - neurotoxin;
apicomplexans/subgroup of alveolates
parasites of animals and humans
spread by sporozoites, with complex organelle at the apex for penetrating host cells
complex life cycles, requiring two or more hosts
eg plasmodium, causes malaria;
8 step cycle of plasmodium/anopheles bites person
sporozoites enter liver cells and divide into merozoites
merozoites break out into blood stream
some merozoites form gametocytes
another anopheles bites person
sexual reproduction forms gametes in mosquito
fertilization and zygote formation in mosquito
oocyst in mosquito releases sporozoites;
ciliates/group in alveolates
cilia in tufts or covering organism
two types of nuclei: micro and macro
reproduce asezually by binary fission;
stramenopiles/chromalveolata
several heterotrophs plus some algae
paired hairy and smooth flagella;
Diatoms/ chromalveolata
glass-like armor of hydrated silica very strong
major component of plankton
reproduce sexually and asexually
biological carbon pump that cycles carbon to the ocean floor
medical-legal: used to determine drowning ;
diatomaceous earth/sediments = mainly fossilized remains of diatoms;
golden algae/chromalveolates
yellow and brown carotenoids
biflagellated plankton
all photosynthetic, some mixotrophic
most unicellular, some colonial;
brown algae/ chromalveolata
largest, most complex algae
some have specialized tissues
all multicellular, most marine
common on temperate coasts
many commonly called seaweeds
includes kelp
produce algin -used for thickening;
thallus/ an algal body that is plantlike
lacks true roots, stems, leaves
has holdfast, stipe, blade;
holdfast/rootlike part of a thallus;
stipe/stemlike part of thallus;
blades/leaf like parts of thallus
photosynthetic surface;
alternation of generations/alternation of multicellular haploid and diploid forms of multicellular algae
eg. brown alga Laminaria;
sporophyte/diploid individual of a species with alternation of generations
produces haploid spores;
zoospores/spores produced by sporophyte in alternation of generations;
gametophytes/ multicellular organism of alternation of generations
develops from zoospores;
syngamy/unification of two gametes;
heteromorphic (alternation of generations)/sporophytes and gametophytes are structurally different;
isomorphic (alternation of generations)/sporophytes and gametophytes are structurally similar, though different in DNA;
oomycetes/chromalveolata
includes water molds, white rusts, and downy mildews
resemble fungi through convergent evolution
cell walls of cellulose, rather than chitin
filamentous hyphae absorb nutrients
most are decomposers or parasites
can have great impact – potato blight;
water molds/oomycetes
decomposers
grow as cottony masses on dead algae and animals
freshwater;
phytophthora infestans/oomycetes that causes potato blight, contributed to Irish potato famine;
amoebas/non monophyletic group spread across distantly related taxa
move by pseudopodium;
radiolarians/rhizaria
pseudopodia radiate from central body
engulf prey through phagocytosis
tests fused into one delicate symmetrical internal skeletons of silica;
Forams/rhizaria
also foraminiferans
named for their porous , multi chambered tests of calcium carbonate
reinforced pseudopodia extend through pores
some symbiotic with photosynthetic algae
oceans and freshwater
can be several centimeters!
most known from fossils;
tests/shells
radiolarians and foramaniferans;
Cercozoans/rhizaria
contains most amoeboid and flagellated protists that use threadlike pseudopodia
marine, freshwater, and soil
most heterotrophs, can be parasites or predators;
chlorarachniophytes/mixotrophic cercozoans;
paulinella chromatophora/cercozoa with sausage shaped photosynthetic apparatus derived from different cyanobacterium than other plastids;
red algae/archaeplastida
6,000 known species
accessory pigment phycoerythrin masks chlorophyll
most abundant in tropical coastal waters
can live in very deep waters and appear blue
usually multicellular
largest are seaweeds
porphyra = nori;
green algae/archaeplastida
grass green chloroplasts resemble those of land plants
divided into chlorophytes and charophyceans;
chlorophytes/subgroup of green algae
over 7,000 species
chloros (greek) = green
most fresh water, some sea
some in damp soil, as symbionts in lichen, or snow
unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms
eg. volvox;
chlamydomonas/simplest chlorophytes;
chlamydomonas nivalis/chlorophyte adapted to live on snow;
3 mechanisms leading to development of larger size and greater complexity in chlorophytes/formation of colonies, eg pond scum
formation of multicellular bodies through differentiation
division of nuclei with no cytoplasmic division;
charophytes/green algae most closely related to land plants;
group unikonta/very divers supergroup including animals, fungi, and some protists
contains two major clades amoebozoans and opisthokonts
amoebas cause dysentery;
two major clades of unikonts/amoebozoans
opisthokonts;
amoebozoans/unikonta
lobe or tube like pseudopodia
include gymnamoebae, entamoebas, slime molds
entamoebas cause dysentery;
entamoebas/amoebozoans that cause human dysentery;
slime molds/unikonta
or “mycetozoans”
once thought to be fungi
unikonta due to molecular systematics
form cellular slime molds;
cellular slime molds/form multicellular aggregates w-cells separated by membranes
cells feed individually, but can form a fruiting body;
dictyostelium discoideum slime mold used as model to study evolution of multicellularity;
gymnamoebas/common unicellular amoebozoans
soil and freshwater
most heterotrophic
consume bacteria and other protists;
entamoebas/parasites of vertebrates and some invertebrates
cause amoebic dysentery;
entamoeba histolytica / entamoeba that causes amoebic dysentery in humans
one of the most common causes of diarrhea;
opisthokonts/ 1 of two major groups in unikonta
include animals, fungi, several groups of protists;
ecological roles of protists/often symbiont or producer
found in divers aquatic environments
some parasitic;
two protists that can evade imune system by changing membrane proteins frequently/plasmodium and trypanosoma;
Trypanossomes evade the immune system by /switching surface proteins;
diplomonads and parabasalids lack/plastids;
======================================
PLANT DIVERSITY ONE
ancestor of all land plants /green algae called charophytes;
four derived traits land plants absent in charophytes/alternation of generations
walled spores producing sporangia
multicellular gametangia
apical meristems;
alternation of generations/multistage reproductive cycle in plants and some protists;
gametophyte/haploid individual in alternation of generations;
sporophyte/diploid individual in alternation of generations
from fusion of gametes
produces haploid spores;
embryophytes/name for land plants from dependency of embryo on parent;
placental transfer cells/transfer nutrients from plant parent to embryo within the female gametophyte;
diploid embryo in alternation of generations found in/ the tissue of the female gametophyte;
sporangia/organs of sporophyte that produces spores;
sporocytes/diploid cells that undergo meiosis to generate haploid spores;
sporopollenin/contained in spore walls
makes them resistant to harsh environments;
spores/haploid cells generated from meiosis of sporocytes;
multicellular gametangia/plant organs that produce gametes;
archegonia/female gametangia
site of egg production and fertilization;
antheridia/male gametangia
site of sperm production and release;
apical meristem/ part of plant that sustains continual growth
differentiates into various tissues
analogous to human stem cells;
gymnosperms/ naked seeds
eg conifer;
three phyla of Bryophytes /liverworts, hornworts, mosses;
phylum of liverworts / phylum hepatophyta
from shape meaning that they could treat liver ailments;
phylum of hornworts / phylum anthocerophyta
from shape of sporophyte;
phylum of mosses / phylum bryophyta
most closely related to vascular plants of the bryophytes;
bryophyte gametophytes / larger and longer living hta sporophytes
mosses and liverworts contain stomata for gas exchange;
bryophyte sporophytes / typically present only part of the time;
life cycle of moss / haploid spores from mature sporophyte
spores form male gametophyte with antheridia
and female gametophytes with archegonia
fertilization in archegonium forms zygote
zygote changes to embryo
embryo matures into sporophyte;
antheridia / male moss organ on gametophyte
produces flagellated sperm;
archegonia / female moss organ on gametophyte
contains egg;
activator of life cycle of moss / moisture;
fern spore germinates into gametophyte containing / protonema and gamete production gametophore;
rhizoids / anchor gametophytes to substrate
do not conduct water or minerals
have no tissues;
constraint of height in ferns / lack of vascular tissue;
Bryophyte sporophytes / grow out of archegonia
smallest simplest sporophytes of all plants;
four parts of bryophyte sporophyte / foot
seta - stalk
capsule - sporangium
peristome - pores that discharge sporangia;
ecological importance of moss / capable of inhabiting diverse environments
most common in forests and wetlands
help retain nitrogen in soil
fuel source - peat;
sphagnum / peat moss
cheap fossil fuel
reservoir of carbon
3 % of earths surface, 30% of earth's soil carbon
can preserve corpses;
tollund man / “mummy” preserved by peat for 2,000 years found in Ireland;
Origins of vascular plants / fossils date 420 million years
early plants had independent, branching sporophytes;
living vascular plants characterized by / life cycle with dominant sporophyte
vascular tissue xylem and phloem
well developed roots and leaves;
larger generation of vascular plants / sporophytes, in contrast with bryophytes, in which gametophyte is dominant;
eg of seedless vascular plant / fern;
fern life cycle / sporangium
spore haploid
gametophyte with antheridium and archegonium
fertilization produces zygote
mature sporophyte is known as fern
spores found on underside of leaves;
difference between fern and moss / fern does not need water for reproduction;
xylem / conducts water and minerals bottom to top
includes dead cells called tracheids;
tracheids / dead cells in xylem;
phloem / living cells
carry sugars, amino acids, and organic products top to bottom;
lignin / strengthens tracheids, water conducting cells;
limiter of plant height / gravity and height of conduction of water
200 - 250 feet;
roots / organs that anchor vascular plants
absorb water and nutrients from soil;
evolution of roots / possibly from subterranean stems;
leaves / organs that increase surface area of vascular plants to capture more solar energy;
photosynthesis / solar energy converted into carbohydrates;
two categories of leaves / microphylls
megaphylls;
microphylls / leaves with a single vein
found only in lycophytes
may have evolved first;
megaphylls / leaves with a highly branched vascular system
in all plants but lycophytes;
sporophylls / modified leaves with sporangia;
soi / clusters of sporangia on undersides of sporophylls;
strobili / cone-like structures formed from groups of sporophylls;
two types of spore production / homosporous - most seedless vascular plants
heterosporous - all seed plants and some seedless;
homosporous spore production / sporangium on sporophyll
single type of spore
bisexuall gametophyte ;
heterosporous production of spores / megasporangium on megasporophyll - megaspore - female gametophyte - egg
microsporangium on microsporophyll - microspore - male gametophyte - sperm;
two phyla of seedless vascular plants / lycophyta
pteridophyta;
phylum pterophyte / seedless vascular plants
Ferns, Horsetails,and Whisk Ferns
closer to seed plants than to lycophytes;
phylum lycophyta / seedless vascular plants
Club Mosses (cLub = lycophyte), Spike Mosses, and Quillworts
the most ancient group of vascular plants ;
most divers seedless vascular plants / ferns
most divers in tropics;
horsetails / divers during the carboniferous period
now restricted to genus equisetum;
whisk ferns / resemble ancestral vascular plants but closely related to modern ferns;
epiphytes, plants that use other plants as
a substrate but are not parasites;
4 characteristics shared between plants and only charophytes/rings of cellulose synthesizing proteins vs linear
peroxisomal enzymesminimize loss through photorespiration
similar structure of flagellated sperm
formation of a phragmoplast during meiosis;
phragmoplast/group of microtubules formed between daughter nuclei of a dividing cell
cell plate develops in the middle of itl;
sporopollenin/layer of durable polymer that prevents charophyte zygotes from drying out
similar to that found in land plant spores;
derived traits/traits emerging after a divergence from ancestral relatives;
cuticle/covering over epidermis in many land plants made of wax and other polymers
protects from desiccation;
secondary compounds/products of secondary metabolic pathways
defenses;
bryophytes/non-vascular land plants
mosses
1mm - 2 m, usually 15 cm
grk: bryon=moss, phyton=plant;
four main groups of plant species/non vascular plants (bryophytes)
seedless vascular plants
gymnosperms
angiosperms;
two phyla of seedless vascular plants/lycophyta
pterophyta;
three phyla of bryophytes/ hepatophyta
bryophyta
anthocerophyta;
four phyla of gymnosperms/cycadophyta
ginkgophyta
gnetophyta
coniferophyta;
phyla of angiosperms/anthophyta;
grade/group that share a key biological feature
such as seedless vascular plants ;
protonema/one cell thick filament produced by germinating moss spore;
gametophore/gamete producing structure generated by protonema of moss;
hornworts/anthocerophyta
5 cm
symbiotic relationship with nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria
first to colonize moist areas;
liverworts/hepatophyta
like little trees;
moss helps retain/nitrogen in soil;
only type of plants in which gametophytes are dominant/ bryophytes;
derived traits in pterophytes and seed plants not found in lycophytes/overtopping growth
megaphyll leaves
roots that can branch at various points on existing roots
================================================================
ANIMAL DIVERSITY
animals/heterotrophs
ingest organic materials in the form of larger food particles;
nervous tissue and muscle tissue are unique to /animals;
what holds animal bodies together/ structural proteins such as collagen;
sequence of development of fertilized egg/fertilization
zygote
cleavage
blastula
gastrulation - gastrula
embryo;
cleavage/rapid cell division of zygote after fertilization;
blastula/formed through cleavage;
gastrulation/process undergone by blastula
forms gastrula;
gastrula/last stage of embryonic development before embryo
has different layers of embryonic tissue;
sequence of development of fertilized egg/fertilization
zygote
cleavage - eight cell stage
blastula - formation of blastocoel
gastrulation - gastrula
embryo;
embryo/final stage of development of fertilized egg;
formation of blastocoel occurs during/the blastula stage of embryonic development ;
invagination occurs during/gastrulation stage of embryonic development;
first step in process of embryonic development/formation of zygote;
three embryonic layers of the gastrula/
larva/sexually immature and morphologically distinct from adult stage of development ;
metamorphosis/process of change from larva to mature adult form of organism;
hox gene/family of genes that regulates the development of body form
highly conserved, but can produce a wide diversity of animal morphology;
highly conserved genes/genes that are very similar across different species;
age of common ancestor of animals/675 - 875 million years ago;
closest living protist relative of animals/choanoflagellates (protists);
protist that may resemble the common ancestor of animals/choanoflagellates;
ediacaran biota/collective name for fossil record of members of an early group of soft-bodied multicellular eukaryotes
name comes from the Ediacara Hills of Australia
565 - 550 million years ago;
choano- / greek: funnel:
cambrian explosion/535 - 525 million years ago
mark of earliest fossil appearance of many major groups of living animals
paleozoic era;
theories as to cause of cambrian explosion/evolution of hox gene
rise in atmospheric oxygen
new predator prey relationships;
animals began to make an impact on land by /460 million years ago;
year vertebrates made transition to land /360 million years ago;
mesozoic era/251-65.5 million years ago
dinosaurs were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates
first mammals emerged;
first era mammals emerged/mesozoic era;
dates of paleozoic era/542–251 Million Years Ago;
dates of cenozoic era/65.5 million years ago to present;
cenozoic era/beginning signals mass extinction of dinosaurs
modern mammal orders and insects diversified;
body plan/set of morphological and developmental traits
sometimes used by biologists to categorize animals;
grade/group whose members share key biological features
not necessarily a clade (monophyletic) group;
clade/monophyletic group that shares a common ancestor;
two types of symmetry/radial and bilateral;
bilaterally symmetrical animasl have/dorsal and ventral sides
R and L sides
anterior and posterior endes
cephalization;
cephalization/development of a head;
tissues/collections of specialized cells separated form other cells by membranous layers;
tissues and organs arise from /the three germ layers of an animal embryo;
three germ layers of animal embryo give rise to /the tissues and organs of the body;
three germ layers/endoderm
mesoderm
ectoderm;
archenteron/developing digestive tube
lined by endoderm;
diploblastic animals/have ectoderm and endoderm;
triploblastic animals/have ectoderm, mesoder, and endoderm
all bilaterians;
bilaterians/all animals that have bilateral symmetry;
type of development common to all bilaterians/triploblastic;
most triploblastic animasl posses/a body cavity;
coelom/true body cavity
a fluid- or airfilled space located between the digestive tract and the outer body wall
derived from mesoderm;
coelomates/animals that possess a true coelum;
body cavity found in / most triploblastic animals;
pseudocoelum/a body cavity that is formed from mesoderm and endoderm in some triploblastic animals
also fully functional body cavity;
pseudocoelomates/triploblastic animals that have a pseudocoelom;
acoelomates/ triploblastic animals that lack a body cavity completely
eg planarian;
two modes of early development/protostome development
deutoersotme development;
differences in deutersostome and protostome development/differences in cleavage
coelom formation
fate of the blastopore;
protostome development/cleavage is spiral and determinate;
deutorostome development/claevage is radial and indeterminate;
indeterminate cleavage/each cell in the early stages of cleavage retains the capacity to develop in to a complete embryo;
idnetical twins and embryonic stme cells are possible due to /indeterminate cleavage;
cleavage in protostome development/spiral and determinate;
cleavage in deuterostome development/radial and indeterminate;
examples of protstome development/molluscs
annelids;
examples of deuterostome devlopment/chordates
echinoderms;
shape of spiral cleavage/ s shaped;
formation of coelem in prostosme/ splitiing of solid masses of mesoderm;
deuterostome formation of coelum/ mesoderm buds from the wall of the archenteron to form the coelum;
determinate cleavage/rigidly casts the fate of developing cells very eraly;
blastopore forms during/gastrulation;
the balstopore connects/ the archenteron to the exterior of the gastrula;
blastopore fate in prostome/ becomes the mouth;
blastopore fate in deutoerostome/becomes the anus;
the mouth is formed before the anus in / protostomes;
=====================================
ANIMAL DIVERSITY ONE
invertebrates/animals lack a backbone
95% of known animal species;
classifications of invertebrates and main examples/clacarea - sponges; and silicea
cnidaria - jellyfish
lophotrochozoa - flat worms
ecdysozoa - round worm
deuterostomia - starfish;
sponges phylum/ calcaria;
sponge habitat/fresh and marine ;
sponge organization/lack true tissues and organs;
sponge mode of nutrition/suspension feeders
capture food particles suspended in water;
choanocytes/flagellated collar cells
generate water current and ingest food from water passing through;
spongocoel/cavity in sponge into which water enters after being drawn through pores;
osculum/exit opening from spongocoel in sponges
at top of sponge;
parts of sponge/porre
osculum
choanocyte
spicules - help in defense
made of calcium carbonate
amoebocyte -help in defense
spicules /help in defense of sponge
made of calcium carbonate;
mesohyl/layer between two cells of sponge;
amoebocytes/found in mesohyl
play role in digestion and structure of sponge;
spong sexuality/hermaphroditic
each individual is both male and female;
cnidarians/diversified into wide range
both sessile and motile forms
include jellies, hydra, corals;
cnidarian body plan/relatively simple diploblastic radial body plan
central digestive compartment called gastrovascular cavity;
diploblastic/body derived from two embryonnic layers;
sessile/ slow moving creature;
two variations of cnidarian body/polyp
motile medusa;
gastrovascualr cavity of sponge/sponge is a sac with a central digestive compartment;
three layers of hydra/gastrodermis
mesoglea
epidermis;
cnidarian nutrition/carnivourous;
cnidocytes/unicque cells on cnidarian tentacles that function as weapons for defense and prey capture
contain nematocyst and trigger;
nematocysts/ specialized organelles within cnidocytes htat eject a stinging thread;
four major classses of cnidarians/hydrozoa*
scyphozoa*
cubozoa
anthozoa;
eg hydrozoa/portuguese man-o-war (b/c looks like portugues helmet)
hydra;
eg scyphozoa/jellies
sea nettles;
eg cubozoa/box jellies;
portuguese man-o-war belongs to group/hydrozoa;
sea nettles belong to group/scyphozoa;
gropu for jellies/scyphozoa;
phylum for hydrozoa/cnidarians;
phylum for scyphozoa/cnidarians;
eg anthozoa/sea anemone
corals;
group for sea anemones/anthozoa
phylum cnidarians;
Class lophotrochozoans general description/bilatarian animals with
triploblastic development;
3 groups in clade bilateria /lophotrochozoa
edycsozoa
deutoerostomia;
clade of lophotrochoza, ecdyozoa and deuterostomia/bilateria;
lophotrochozoa includes/flatworms*
molluscs*
annelids*
(and rotifers, ectorprocts, brachiopods);
lophophore/feeding aparatus in some lophotrochozoa;
flatworms/phylum platyhelminthes
habitat of flatwomrs/live in marine, freshwater, damp terrestrial habitats;
digestion of flatworms/acoelomates;
development of flatworms/triplobolastic;
gas exchange in flatworms /across the surface;
protonephridia/regulate osmotic balance in flatwomrs;
eg. of phylum platyhelminthes /flatworms;
clade of flatwomrs, molluscs, and annelids/lophotrochozoa;
flatworm body organization/flattened dorsoventrally
have a gastrovascular cavity;
Acoelomates/ lack a fluid-filled body cavity between the body wall and digestive tract;
four classes of flatworms/tramatodes (flukes)*
cestoda (tapeworms)*
monogenea
turvellaria;
tramatodes and cestoda are types of /flatworms;
tapeworms and flukes are in the group/flatworms
clade lophotrochozoa;
two important parasites in phylum platyhelminthes/tramatodes (flukes)
tapeworms (cestoda);
trematodes/(flukes) parasidte, mostly of vertebrates
most two stage life cycle include intermediate and final hosts
eg Chinese liver fluke
two suckers attach to host;
cestoda/(tapeworm)
parasites of vertebrates
life cycle of one or more intermediate stages
no head or digestive system;
eg of tramatode/chinese liver fluke;
two types of cestoda (tapeworms)/pork and beef;
scolex/part of tapeworm attaches to host;
proglottid/part of tapewom that produces eggs, which break off afeer fertiliazation and pass out through feces;
Tubellarians/ all free living, mostly marine;
best know tubellarians called /planarians;
planarians general features/member of tubellarians
light senseitive eyespots
centralized nerve nets;
sexuality of planarains/hermaphroditic
can reproduces sexually or asexually through fission;
planarain nervous system vs cnidarian/more complax and centralized;
monogeneans and tramatodes live as /parasites;
range of monogeans and trematodes/wide range of hosts;
trematodes that parasitize humans spend part of life in /snails;
host animal of most monogeneans/fish;
life cycle of monogenens and tramatodes;
life cycle of chinese liver fluke/in humans and snails
ciliated larva from human feces enter snail
motile larva come from snail and enter person through skin
larva moves through blood vessel to intestine;
male of fluke lives /inside the female;
tapeworms/ cestoda
parasites of vertebrates
lack digestive system;
fertilized tapeworm eggs leave the host through/feces;
tapeworm form of nutrition/absorb from host’s intestines;
tapeworm head organization/ring of hooks with four suckers;
5 in phylum mollusca/clams*
snails
slugs
oysters
octopi
squid;
habitat of mollusca/most marine
some freshwater
some teresttrial;
moslllusc body/soft body, most protected by shell;
clams are members of phylum/mollusca;
names of tapeworms of beef and pork/beef - taenia saginita
pork - taenia solium;
three main parts of molluscs body/muscular foot
visceral mass
mantle;
mantle cavity/in many molluscs
water filled;
radula/feeding aparatus of molluscs;
mantle/part of mollusc
makes the shell
and pearl in mollusc;
producer of the pearl or shell in mollusc/mantle;
a muscular foot can be found in a / mollusc;
sex of molluscs/most have separate sexes;
gonads of molluscs located/in the visceral mass;
trochophore/ciliated larval stage found in many molluscs;
group for snails/gastropoda;
group for clams/bivalvia;
four major classes of molluscs/gastropoda
bivalvia
cephalopodia
polyplacopohra;
4 cephalopoda contains/squid, octopus, cuttlefish, chambered nautilus;
2 eg gastropods contains/snails, slugs
Annelids have bodies composed of / three rings;
three classes of annelids/
oligochaeta - earchworms
polychata - plychates
hirudinea - leeches;
phylum and class of earthworms/annilida - oligochaeta;
class oligochaets/ annelids
includes earthworms
relatively sparse bistles called chitae, made of chitin
eat through soil, extracting nutrients
hermaphrodites, but cross fertalize;
sex of earthwormds/they are hermaphroditic, but cross fertalize;
chitae/distinguisihgn feature of oligochaets (earthworms)
sprase bristles made of chitin;
clitelum/organ for storing received sperm in earthworm
smooth ring near the front end of the worm;
crop of earthworm/swelling in intesting
brain of earthworm located/ posterior to the mouth;
polychaetes/class with paddlle like parapodia that work as gills and aid in locomotion;
hirudinea/class of blood sucking parasites annelids
eg.leeches;
hirudin/anticoagulant secreted by leeches and other hirudins (blood sucking parasites);
class of blood sucking parasitic annelids/hirudin;
ecdysozoans/ most species rich animal group
covered by a cuticle;
two largest phyla in ecdysozoans/nematodes and arthropods;
cuticle of ecdysozoans/tough outer coating
like an exoskelton;
ecdysis/molting of cuticle;
nematodes/roundworms
member of ecdysozoa;
habitat of nematodes/most aquatic habitats, soil, most tissues of plants, body fluids of animals;
trichinella spiralis/parasitic nematode/ roundworm
infects poeple through undercooked pork
develops in the muscles;
two of eery three known species are/arthropods;
arthropod body plan/segmented body
hard exoskelton
jointed appendages;
date of origin of arthropods/cambrian explosion
535-525 million years ago;
early arthropods show little variation between/segments of the body;
characterization of arthorpod evolution/decrease in number of segments;
function of antennae in crayfish/sensory reception;
cuticle of arthropod/exoskeleton;
composition of exoskeleton of arthropods/layers of protein and chitin;
circulatory fluid of arthropods/hemolymph;
circualtory system of arthropods/open circulation of hemolymph;
there are a variety of organs for gas exchaning in the class /arthropods;
four lineages of arthropods/cheliceriforms - hexapods - insects
crustaceans - crabs, lobsters, shrimp, barnacles, etc
hrseshoe crabs, spiders, scorpions
myriapods - centipedes and milipedes:
hexapods include/insects;
Label diagram of the sponge
label planaria
label earthworm diagram p. 682
==================================================
VIRUSES
virus /an infectious particle consisting of little more than genes packaged in a protein coat ;
3 reasons viruses are interesting/ study of viruses has led to the development
of techniques that enable scientists to manipulate genes
and transfer them from one organism to another
molecular biology was born in the laboratories
of biologists studying viruses that infect bacteria
they were critical in
working out the molecular mechanisms of the fundamental
processes of DNA replication, transcription, and translation;
Tobacco mosaic disease /stunts the growth of tobacco plants
and gives their leaves a mottled, or mosaic, coloration
after filtration by dmitry ivanovsky, sap still caused disease;
martinus beijerinck/first scientist to voice the concept of the virus
TMV;
smallest virus size/ 20 nm;
capsid/The protein shell enclosing the viral genome
may be rod-shaped, polyhedral, or more complex;
capsomeres/Capsids are built from protein subunits
the number of different kinds of proteins in a capsid is usually small;
capsid made from over a thousand molecules
of a single type of protein arranged in a helix; rod shaped
helical viruses/ capsid made from over a thousand molecules
of a single type of protein arranged in a helix
rod shaped;
Adenoviruses/ infect the respiratory tracts of animals
polyhedral capsid with 20 triangular facets—an icosahedron;
viral envelopes/ derived from the membranes of the host cell, contain host cell
phospholipids , membrane proteins, and proteins and glycoproteins of viral origin;
bacteriophages/phages
viruses that infect bacteria;
obligate intracellular parasites/need to be in host to replicate;
host range/limited number of species a virus can infect
in eukaryotes usually limited to a particular tissue;
lock and key fit / method viruses identify hosts;
3 methods of viral entry/endocytosis
injection (like bacteriophages)
fusion of viral envelope with plasma membrane;
new viruses/spontaneously self-assemble ;
many of the symptoms associated with viral infections due to/ cellular
damage and death from exit of
hundreds or thousands of viruses from the infected host cell
body’s immune responses to this destruction;
two alternative mechanisms viruses can replicate / lytic
cycle
lysogenic cycle;
lytic cycle/ends in death of host cell;
virulent phage/phage that replicates only by lytic cycle;
5 steps of lytic cycle/ attachment
entry of phage dna, degradation of host dna
synthesis of viral genome and protenis
assembly
release (lysis);
restriction enzymes/bacterial enzymes that recognize foreign dna dn cut it up;
lysogenic cycle/allows replication of phage genome without destroying the host
prophages are capable of generating active phages that lyse their host cells;
temperate phages/phages capable of using both modes of replication;
eg. phage λ;
prophage/viral DNA that has been integrated into bacterial chromosome
can alter host phenotype
leaves host during lytic phase;
lysogenic trigger/environmental signal that stimulate the lysogenic DNA to convert to the lytic stage;
two basic kinds of viruses/DNA (single or double)
RNA (single or double);
difference between bacteriophages and animal viruses/few bacteriophages have envelope or RNA genome
nearly all animal RNA viruses have envelope, some DNA do too;
mechanism envelope uses to enter host cell/viral glycoproteins bind to specific receptor molecules on host cell surface;
viral envelope made by/ER of the host cell;
classes of single stranded RNA viruses/ IV - VI;
class or RNA virus that directly serves as mRNA in host/Class IV
immediate translation;
how RNA of viral genome functions in host/serves as template translated into mRNA and more viral RNA;
Retroviruses/class VI
equipped with reverse transcriptase
enveloped
contain x2 RNA and 2 reverse transcriptase;
reverse transcriptase/enzyme that transcribes from viral RNA template to DNA that enters host nucleus and integrates;
8 step replication of enveloped RNA virus/1 viral glycoproteins bind to host
2 capsid and viral genome enter cell
3 V genome functions as template
4 new copies of V genome made
5 new V RNA acts as mRNA, makes capsid proteins and glycoproteins
6 vesicles trans glycoproteins to plasma membrane
7 capsid assembles around molecules of viral genome
8 new viruses bud from cell;
provirus/viral DNA that is integrated into host DNA from a retrovirus
permanent resident of the cell;
point of likely virus evolution/after first cells evolved;
candidates for original sources of viral genomes/plasmids
transposons;
transposons/DNA segments that can move from one location to another within a cell’s genome;
plasmids/circular, separate bacterial dna
occasionally transferred between cells;
mobile genetic elements/ plasmids, transposons, viruses
can move between cells;
possible genesis of viruses/possibly originated from naked bits of cellular nucleic acids that moved from one cell to another, maybe from injured cells;
mimivirus/largest virus discovered
400 nm
mimicking microbe
x2 strand DNA with icosahedral capsid;
3 mechanisms of damage by virus/kill cells by release of hydrolytic enzymes from lysosomes
cause infected cells to produce toxins
have molecular components that are toxic, like envelope proteins;
vaccine/harmless variant or derivative of pathogen that stimulates immune system to mount defenses against it;
antiviral drugs/are nucleosides, interfere with viral nucleic acid synthesis
eg. acyclovir;
azidothymidine/AZT
curbs HIV replication, interferes with reverse transcriptase;
emerging viruses/viruses that suddenly become apparent
eg HIV;
epidemic/general outbreak of disease;
pandemic/global epidemic;
three processes that contribute to emergence of new viral diseases/mutation of existing viruses
dissemination from a small, isolated population
spread of viruses from animals;
cause of high rate of viral mutation/RNA transcription errors are not corrected;
three strains of flu/A, B, C;
strain of flu causing epidemics/A;
H1N1 named for/viral surface proteins
hemagglutinin and neuraminidase;
how virus jumps species/different strains can combine within a host;
recombinant virus/viruses that combined in a host to form new virus
eg. swine flu;
H5N1/bird flu;
common forms of plant viruses/RNA
helical or icosahedral;
two routes of plant virus transmission/horizontal transmission
vertical transmission;
horizontal transmission/plant infected from external sources of virus
through damaged exterior;
vertical transmission/plant inherits viral infection from parent;
plant viruses transmitted between cells via/plasmodesmata;
viroids/single circular RNA molecules that infect plants
smaller than viruses
few hundred nucleotides;
cadan-cadan/virod that killed coconut palms in the Philippines;
prions/infectious proteins
misfolded protein normally present in brain cells
can convert normal proteins to misfolded form
then aggregations cause symptoms;
examples of prion disease/scrapie in sheep
mad cow disease
CJD
kuru;
two alarming characteristics of prion disease/indestructible
>10 yr incubation period;
====END====
TO BE ADDED
